The Ottomans built an empire in the 13th and 14th centuries that grew to rival the Abbasid imperium. Their ideas revolved around ideas and institutions of traditional earlier Muslim civilizations, they brought new advancements and changes to warfare, architecture as well es engingeering. E· In addition to Muslim traders, commerce was in the hands of Christian and Jewish merchants, called dhimmis · Regime regulated commercial exchanges and handicraft production S· Ottomans- ruled by a leader named Osman, dominated the regions in the 13th century in Anatolia to build a new empire · Members of the warrior class vied with religious leaders and administrators · Beneath the ruling class, sizeable portion of the population of Constantinople belonged to the merchant and artisan classes · Artisans were organized into guilds, officers set craft standards P· Ottomans developed into a warrior aristrocracy · They were granted control over land and peasant producers in annexed areas for the support of their households · Janissaries had the power to depose sultans and decide which one of a dying ruler’s sons would mount the throne by the mid-16th century · Ottoman rulers were absolute onarchs · Chief- Islami reglious scholars and legal experts · Vizier- day to day administration was carried out by this person · Ottomans suffered because they inherited Islamic principles of political succession I· Mongols raided but did not rule Anatolia, which fell into warfare · 1350s- Ottomans had advanced from strongholds in Asia Minor- captured large portions of the Balkans · Mid-14th century Ottomans had bypassed rather than conquered Constantinople, but captured it by the mid 15th century · Mehmed II, Ottoman sultan, led the Otoman army · Ottomans overwhelmed the defenders and raided into the city · Ottomans became a formidable naval power in the Mediterranean Sea · Captured island bases on Rhodes, Crete, and Cyprus · Janissaries were troops- conscripted as adolescent boys in conquered areas, they were legally slaves · Janissaries had growing importance- controlled the artillery and firearms R· cooperation with other peoples of the book I· Ottoman sultans had marble palaces and pleasure gardens · Saint Sophia converted to one of the grandest mosques in the Islamic world · New mosques and palaces built throughout the city · Each sultan who ruled strove to be rembered for his efforts to beautify the capital · T· Construction of mosques and palaces benefited from architectural advances · Suleymaniye—spectacular mosque built at the behest of the most successful of the sultans · Mansions, rest houses, religious schools, hospitals, public and private gardens, coffeehouses
Mughal ESPIRIT With the Mughal dynasty, Islam came to its peak as a political and cultural force in southern Asia. Under leaders such as Humayan, Akbar, and their successors, Hindu and Islamic civilizations produced advancements in architecture and the intellectuals, such as art. E Trade -->Mughal empire became one of the greatest oversea destinations for traders. no interest in European products, but huge for textiles Cloth was traded through various places military conflict drained their treasury Mughal empire became one of the major oversea destinations for European traders textiles were a major part of their economy S -->The social conditions for upper class women increased in politics, while middle and lower class women's statuses declined. Akbar carried out social reforms warrior aristocrat class were main supporters of Mughals- were given feudalism-like estates improve living quarters of vagabonds many pro-women’s-rights policies & changes Elite women gain power in politics but women’s role in rest of society declined Widows were encouraged to remarry and discouraged child marriages THe burning of high caste Hindu women ont heir husbands funeral pryes was illegal Muslim women rarely left the comfort of their homes P Founder of the Mughal dynasty Babur, traced his descent from one side from the Mongol khans Babur was descended from the Turkic conqueror, Timur, and most of his followers were from Turkic or other nomadic regions Babur’s motives for conquest and empire building- directed raids intot he fertile and heavilty populated plains of north India to gain booty -à he cared little for the green and well-watered subcontinent Babur left his son Humayan to inherit the newly founded kingdom Akbar turned out to be one of the greatest rulers à fine military commander with great personal courage IBabur was a great military strategist and fierce fighter who actually fought with his troops Humayan’s brothers disupted his succession and armies from Afghanistan and the Rajput states of western India marched on his capital- forced to flee to Persia, gained foothold at Kabul in 1545 Akbar, Humayan’s son, was the successorà Mughals’ enemies moved quickly to take advantage of Humayan’s sudden death R Akbar created Din-il-Ilahi, a new faith to end sectionalism and violence IArid steppes and blue-domed mosques Babur had a taste for the arts à loved music, wrote one of the greatest histories of India, designed gardens for his capital at Delhi Akbar patronized the arts and entered into complex religious and philosophical discussions with learned scholars from Muslim, Christian, and Hindu worlds T weaving and dying techniques
Safavids ESPIRIT
E
Main Idea: Shah Abbas I went above and beyond to give merchants and traders the most efficient way to trade by established a network of roads and rest houses. Despite his efforts, the Safavid economy came to generally be less market oriented than other states. · Abbas I established his empire as a major center of international trade -Created network of roads and rest houses, desired to make merchants and travelers safe when they were within his domains · Workshops to manufacture the silk textiles and Persian carpets (great demand) were established · Abbas I encouraged Iranian merchants to trade with Muslim, Indian, China, Portuguese, Dutch, and English · Ottomans gained economy growth since their large-scale traders in their empire were from minority groups, who had great contacts with oversea traders · Safavid economy remained much more constricted, less market oriented
S
Main Idea: The Ottomans and Safavids contained very similar social systems, both being dominated by warrior aristocracies and profoundly involved in production and trade. Like many other states in this era, women were subordinated to their fathers and husbands and lacked power outside of politics and religion. · Ottomans and Safavids had very similar social systems · both dominated by warrior aristocracies, which shared power with the absolutist monarchs of each empire (and enjoyed great luxury) · warrior aristocrats retreated to the estates and made life difficult for the peasants on whom they depended on for the support of their houses · demand for landlord class grew with diminish of rulers and population increases reduced the uncultivated lands where peasants may had run to · early rulers encouraged handicraft production and trade, established imperial workshops · engineers, stonemasons, carpenters, and other artisans were provided good pay · women in Islamic societies under Ottoman or Safavid rule faced legal and social disadvantagesà women were subordinated to their fathers and husbands, had political or religious power, and meager outlets for artistic/scholarly expression · (recent evidence suggests) women in the Islamic heartlands struggled against restrictionsà women made no effort to cover their faces in public · Wives and concubines of the rulers were to influence the women · Many women active in trade and money-lending
P
Main Idea: The Safavid dynasty contained an ever-expanding imperial bureaucracy. · Isma’il drank to escape troubles (loss at Chaldiran) à new shah Tahmasp I won the throne and set about restoring the power of the dynasty · Turkic chiefs wanted supreme power, Ozbegs were driven from Safavid domains · Under Shah Abbas I the empire reached strength and prosperity peak, despite that amount of territories controlled remained equivalent to those when ruled by Isma’il and Tahmasp I · Tahmasp worked to bring the Turkic chiefs under control and transform into a warrior nobility · Safavid warrior nobles were assigned villages, whose peasants were required to supply them and their troops with food and labor · Expanding imperial bureaucracy* struggle for power and influence between Turkic and Persian notables was very complicated · Shah Abbas I or Abbas the Great made great use of the youths who were captured in Russia (educated and converted to Islam) they were granted provincial governorships and high offices at court -Similar to the Janissaries, “slave” regiments monopolized the firearms that became prominent in Safavid armies · Sherley brothers from England provided instruction in the casting of cannons and trained Abba’s slave infantry and a special regiment of musketeers recruited from Iranian peasantry · Abbas built a standing army of 40,000 troops and elite bodyguard
I
Main Idea: One of the most historic battles between the Safavids and the Ottomans resulted in a terrible loss for the Safavid dynasty, ending their dreams of western expansion. · Decades of wars caused by the Red Heads and their enemies led to a surviving Sufi commander named Isma’il, who led his Turkic followers to a string of victories -1501, Isma’il’s armies took the city of Tabriz, where he was proclaimed shah (emperor) -A group that followed the Safavids called the Red Heads (due to their distinct headgear) preached Shi’a doctrines and grew à as well did their number of enemies · Isma’il’s followers conquered majority of Persia and pushed the neighboring nomadic people of Turkic stock back to central Asia (present-day Iraq) · Safavid successes and support from their followers attained from the Ottoman borderlands brought them to conflict with Ottoman rulers -August 1514 at Chaldiran, the two armies met in one of the most fateful battles in historyà clash between champions of the Shi’a and Sunni variants of Islam -Used military weapons for battle; *Isma’il’s army lost to well-armed Ottomans -Safavid loss in battle at Chaldiran diminished dreams of western expansion, checked the rapid spread of conversions to Shi’a Islam in the western borderlands as a result of the Safavid’s recent successes in battle · Powerful warrior leaders occupied key posts, posed a constant threat to Safavid monarch after defeat at Chaldiran -To counterbalance threat, Safavid rulers recruited Persians for positions at the court and in the rapidly expanding imperial bureaucracy
R
Main Idea: Safavid shahs and their followers had faith in Shi’ism, which provided ideological and institutional support and was an essential part of Iranian identity. · Safavid dynasty came from a family of Sufi mystics and religious preachersà shrine center at Ardabil -Sail al-Din (named the dynasty) began a militant campaign to purify and reform Islam and spread Muslim teachings among Turkic tribes · Shahs relied on Persian religious scholars called Mullahs who entered into service of the state and were paid by government -They were local mosque officials and prayer leaders · all religious leaders had to curse the first three caliphs and mention the Safavid ruler in the Friday sermon · religious leaders taught in the mosque schools and were directed by state religious officials · Iranian population majority converted to Shi’ism during the centuries of Safavid ruleà others like Sunni Muslims, Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, followers of Sufi were pressured to convert · Religious festivalà commemorating the martyrdom of Husayn (son of Ali)àpublic flagellation involvement as well as passion playsà pilgrimages to Shi’a shrines such as in Karbala · Shi’ism provided ideological and institutional support for Safavid dynasty and was an integral part of Iranian identity
I
Main Idea: The Safavid capital at Isfahan contained beautiful mosques, public baths, beautiful colored designs, and ceramic tiles under the reign of Abbas I. · Early shahs wrote in Turkishà after Chaldiran, Persian supplanted Turkish as the language of the court and bureaucracy · Persian influences were felt in the ritual organizations · Safavids took titles like padishah, or king of kings and derived from those used by ancient Persian emperors · Safavids presided from their high thrones over opulent palace complexes with servants and courtiersà palace life was set by elaborate court rituals and social interaction refined of etiquette and decorum · Safavid shahs claimed descent from one of the Shi’a imams, or successors of Ali · The militant, expansive cast of Shi’a ideology was modified as the faith became major · Abbas I established his empire as a major center of Islamic culture · Capital Isfahan**à seat of Safavid was around a great square lined with two-story shops with mosques, government offices, and soaring arches that opened onto formal gardens · Abbas I founded colleges · Public baths and rest houses established throughout the capital · Beautifully colored miniatures produced by master painters and their apprentices · Great mosques were glory of Abbas I reign: -Ceramic tiles, massive domes, graceful minarets, royal tombs, geometric designs, floral patterns, verses from the Qur’an written in Arabic
T
Main Idea: Technologies in the Safavid dynasty ranged from muskets and field cannons on the battle field to domes and cool refuges in the capital of Isfahan. · At the battle of Chaldiran between the Ottomans and Safavid armies, muskets and field cannon in the gunpowder age was highlightedà use of artillery · Under the reign of Abbas I, grand mosques and ceramic tiles were used · Persian architects and artisans created lush, cool refuges · Domes, tombs, pools, rest houses all created in capital of Isfahan under Abbas I
E· In addition to Muslim traders, commerce was in the hands of Christian and Jewish merchants, called dhimmis
· Regime regulated commercial exchanges and handicraft production
S· Ottomans- ruled by a leader named Osman, dominated the regions in the 13th century in Anatolia to build a new empire
· Members of the warrior class vied with religious leaders and administrators
· Beneath the ruling class, sizeable portion of the population of Constantinople belonged to the merchant and artisan classes
· Artisans were organized into guilds, officers set craft standards
P· Ottomans developed into a warrior aristrocracy
· They were granted control over land and peasant producers in annexed areas for the support of their households
· Janissaries had the power to depose sultans and decide which one of a dying ruler’s sons would mount the throne by the mid-16th century
· Ottoman rulers were absolute onarchs
· Chief- Islami reglious scholars and legal experts
· Vizier- day to day administration was carried out by this person
· Ottomans suffered because they inherited Islamic principles of political succession
I· Mongols raided but did not rule Anatolia, which fell into warfare
· 1350s- Ottomans had advanced from strongholds in Asia Minor- captured large portions of the Balkans
· Mid-14th century Ottomans had bypassed rather than conquered Constantinople, but captured it by the mid 15th century
· Mehmed II, Ottoman sultan, led the Otoman army
· Ottomans overwhelmed the defenders and raided into the city
· Ottomans became a formidable naval power in the Mediterranean Sea
· Captured island bases on Rhodes, Crete, and Cyprus
· Janissaries were troops- conscripted as adolescent boys in conquered areas, they were legally slaves
· Janissaries had growing importance- controlled the artillery and firearms
R· cooperation with other peoples of the book
I· Ottoman sultans had marble palaces and pleasure gardens
· Saint Sophia converted to one of the grandest mosques in the Islamic world
· New mosques and palaces built throughout the city
· Each sultan who ruled strove to be rembered for his efforts to beautify the capital
·
T· Construction of mosques and palaces benefited from architectural advances
· Suleymaniye—spectacular mosque built at the behest of the most successful of the sultans
· Mansions, rest houses, religious schools, hospitals, public and private gardens, coffeehouses
Mughal ESPIRIT
With the Mughal dynasty, Islam came to its peak as a political and cultural force in southern Asia. Under leaders such as Humayan, Akbar, and their successors, Hindu and Islamic civilizations produced advancements in architecture and the intellectuals, such as art.
E Trade -->Mughal empire became one of the greatest oversea destinations for traders.
no interest in European products, but huge for textiles
Cloth was traded through various places
military conflict drained their treasury
Mughal empire became one of the major oversea destinations for European traders
textiles were a major part of their economy
S -->The social conditions for upper class women increased in politics, while middle and lower class women's statuses declined.
Akbar carried out social reforms
warrior aristocrat class were main supporters of Mughals- were given feudalism-like estates
improve living quarters of vagabonds
many pro-women’s-rights policies & changes
Elite women gain power in politics but women’s role in rest of society declined
Widows were encouraged to remarry and discouraged child marriages
THe burning of high caste Hindu women ont heir husbands funeral pryes was illegal
Muslim women rarely left the comfort of their homes
P
Founder of the Mughal dynasty Babur, traced his descent from one side from the Mongol khans
Babur was descended from the Turkic conqueror, Timur, and most of his followers were from Turkic or other nomadic regions
Babur’s motives for conquest and empire building- directed raids intot he fertile and heavilty populated plains of north India to gain booty -à he cared little for the green and well-watered subcontinent
Babur left his son Humayan to inherit the newly founded kingdom
Akbar turned out to be one of the greatest rulers à fine military commander with great personal courage
IBabur was a great military strategist and fierce fighter who actually fought with his troops
Humayan’s brothers disupted his succession and armies from Afghanistan and the Rajput states of western India marched on his capital- forced to flee to Persia, gained foothold at Kabul in 1545
Akbar, Humayan’s son, was the successorà Mughals’ enemies moved quickly to take advantage of Humayan’s sudden death
R Akbar created Din-il-Ilahi, a new faith to end sectionalism and violence
IArid steppes and blue-domed mosques
Babur had a taste for the arts à loved music, wrote one of the greatest histories of India, designed gardens for his capital at Delhi
Akbar patronized the arts and entered into complex religious and philosophical discussions with learned scholars from Muslim, Christian, and Hindu worlds
T weaving and dying techniques
Safavids ESPIRIT
· Abbas I established his empire as a major center of international trade
- Created network of roads and rest houses, desired to make merchants and travelers safe when they were within his domains
· Workshops to manufacture the silk textiles and Persian carpets (great demand) were established
· Abbas I encouraged Iranian merchants to trade with Muslim, Indian, China, Portuguese, Dutch, and English
· Ottomans gained economy growth since their large-scale traders in their empire were from minority groups, who had great contacts with oversea traders
· Safavid economy remained much more constricted, less market oriented
· Ottomans and Safavids had very similar social systems
· both dominated by warrior aristocracies, which shared power with the absolutist monarchs of each empire (and enjoyed great luxury)
· warrior aristocrats retreated to the estates and made life difficult for the peasants on whom they depended on for the support of their houses
· demand for landlord class grew with diminish of rulers and population increases reduced the uncultivated lands where peasants may had run to
· early rulers encouraged handicraft production and trade, established imperial workshops
· engineers, stonemasons, carpenters, and other artisans were provided good pay
· women in Islamic societies under Ottoman or Safavid rule faced legal and social disadvantagesà women were subordinated to their fathers and husbands, had political or religious power, and meager outlets for artistic/scholarly expression
· (recent evidence suggests) women in the Islamic heartlands struggled against restrictionsà women made no effort to cover their faces in public
· Wives and concubines of the rulers were to influence the women
· Many women active in trade and money-lending
· Isma’il drank to escape troubles (loss at Chaldiran) à new shah Tahmasp I won the throne and set about restoring the power of the dynasty
· Turkic chiefs wanted supreme power, Ozbegs were driven from Safavid domains
· Under Shah Abbas I the empire reached strength and prosperity peak, despite that amount of territories controlled remained equivalent to those when ruled by Isma’il and Tahmasp I
· Tahmasp worked to bring the Turkic chiefs under control and transform into a warrior nobility
· Safavid warrior nobles were assigned villages, whose peasants were required to supply them and their troops with food and labor
· Expanding imperial bureaucracy* struggle for power and influence between Turkic and Persian notables was very complicated
· Shah Abbas I or Abbas the Great made great use of the youths who were captured in Russia (educated and converted to Islam) they were granted provincial governorships and high offices at court
- Similar to the Janissaries, “slave” regiments monopolized the firearms that became prominent in Safavid armies
· Sherley brothers from England provided instruction in the casting of cannons and trained Abba’s slave infantry and a special regiment of musketeers recruited from Iranian peasantry
· Abbas built a standing army of 40,000 troops and elite bodyguard
· Decades of wars caused by the Red Heads and their enemies led to a surviving Sufi commander named Isma’il, who led his Turkic followers to a string of victories
- 1501, Isma’il’s armies took the city of Tabriz, where he was proclaimed shah (emperor)
- A group that followed the Safavids called the Red Heads (due to their distinct headgear) preached Shi’a doctrines and grew à as well did their number of enemies
· Isma’il’s followers conquered majority of Persia and pushed the neighboring nomadic people of Turkic stock back to central Asia (present-day Iraq)
· Safavid successes and support from their followers attained from the Ottoman borderlands brought them to conflict with Ottoman rulers
- August 1514 at Chaldiran, the two armies met in one of the most fateful battles in historyà clash between champions of the Shi’a and Sunni variants of Islam
- Used military weapons for battle; *Isma’il’s army lost to well-armed Ottomans
- Safavid loss in battle at Chaldiran diminished dreams of western expansion, checked the rapid spread of conversions to Shi’a Islam in the western borderlands as a result of the Safavid’s recent successes in battle
· Powerful warrior leaders occupied key posts, posed a constant threat to Safavid monarch after defeat at Chaldiran
- To counterbalance threat, Safavid rulers recruited Persians for positions at the court and in the rapidly expanding imperial bureaucracy
· Safavid dynasty came from a family of Sufi mystics and religious preachersà shrine center at Ardabil
- Sail al-Din (named the dynasty) began a militant campaign to purify and reform Islam and spread Muslim teachings among Turkic tribes
· Shahs relied on Persian religious scholars called Mullahs who entered into service of the state and were paid by government
- They were local mosque officials and prayer leaders
· all religious leaders had to curse the first three caliphs and mention the Safavid ruler in the Friday sermon
· religious leaders taught in the mosque schools and were directed by state religious officials
· Iranian population majority converted to Shi’ism during the centuries of Safavid ruleà others like Sunni Muslims, Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, followers of Sufi were pressured to convert
· Religious festivalà commemorating the martyrdom of Husayn (son of Ali)àpublic flagellation involvement as well as passion playsà pilgrimages to Shi’a shrines such as in Karbala
· Shi’ism provided ideological and institutional support for Safavid dynasty and was an integral part of Iranian identity
· Early shahs wrote in Turkishà after Chaldiran, Persian supplanted Turkish as the language of the court and bureaucracy
· Persian influences were felt in the ritual organizations
· Safavids took titles like padishah, or king of kings and derived from those used by ancient Persian emperors
· Safavids presided from their high thrones over opulent palace complexes with servants and courtiersà palace life was set by elaborate court rituals and social interaction refined of etiquette and decorum
· Safavid shahs claimed descent from one of the Shi’a imams, or successors of Ali
· The militant, expansive cast of Shi’a ideology was modified as the faith became major
· Abbas I established his empire as a major center of Islamic culture
· Capital Isfahan**à seat of Safavid was around a great square lined with two-story shops with mosques, government offices, and soaring arches that opened onto formal gardens
· Abbas I founded colleges
· Public baths and rest houses established throughout the capital
· Beautifully colored miniatures produced by master painters and their apprentices
· Great mosques were glory of Abbas I reign:
- Ceramic tiles, massive domes, graceful minarets, royal tombs, geometric designs, floral patterns, verses from the Qur’an written in Arabic
· At the battle of Chaldiran between the Ottomans and Safavid armies, muskets and field cannon in the gunpowder age was highlightedà use of artillery
· Under the reign of Abbas I, grand mosques and ceramic tiles were used
· Persian architects and artisans created lush, cool refuges
· Domes, tombs, pools, rest houses all created in capital of Isfahan under Abbas I